Wheat Flour II

There are several kinds of wheat flour available for sale with the most popular being enriched and bleached all-purpose flour. The differences between the flours comes down to the type of wheat, the parts of wheat included, the processing of the wheat, and any additives added to the flour. In this article, I'll examine each of these characteristics:

Protein content
A certain type of protein called gluten (glutenin) is responsible for wheat flour's elastic properties. The more gluten in a flour makes it easier for the flour to build up a tough structure able to trap the waste gases of yeast during kneading as well as rise effectively during baking. Less gluten in a flour produces a lighter, less chewier texture such as those found in cakes. The exact amount of gluten in your flour depends on where it was milled and the variations in growth of the wheat crop.

The main wheat varieties grown in the United States are, in order of quantity grown and sold, hard red wheat, soft red wheat, durum and white. Hard red wheat is used to produce flour high in gluten content, while soft red wheat is used for flour low in gluten. Durum is milled to produce semolina flour used mainly for macaroni pastas. Semolina flour has the highest gluten content of all mass produced wheat flours. White wheat is produced in smaller quantities in the U.S. and makes low gluten flour.

High gluten flour and bread flour is produced from hard wheat. High gluten flour has a gluten percentage of about 12-14% while bread flour contains about 10-13% gluten. Both flours are almost completely made of hard wheat, but some high gluten flours are treated to reduce starch content, raising the gluten content to around 14%. These flours are generally used for making breads. High gluten flour is reserved for breads that are extra elastic such as bagels and pizza.

Cake flour is produced from soft wheat and is low in gluten content (8-10%). This flour is used for making delicate cakes. Baked goods made with cake flour has a tendency to crumble because of the low gluten content.

All purpose flour is made from a mixture of hard and soft wheats. The gluten content ranges from 9-12%. This is the most versatile flour because it can be used to make both cakes and breads. However, breads won't be as chewy and cakes won't be as tender as if you used bread or cake flour.

Pastry flour is also a mix of hard and soft wheat flours with an emphasis on soft. Generally, the gluten content is 9-10% and is often recommended for pie crusts.

Germ
Whole wheat flour contains the germ (the embryo of the wheat kernel) and is more flavorful than regular all-purpose flour which does not include the germ. Because the germ is included, there are more nutrients as well as fiber and fat content in whole wheat flour. However, the flour should be stored in the refrigerator to prevent the germ oils from becoming rancid.

Processing
Almost all the flour sold is steel ground meaning a large machine with steel hammers or rollers crushes and grinds the wheat kernels down. This is a very efficient means of producing flour, but the steel surfaces heat up with the high speed and volume of wheat being ground. This heat causes some of the vitamins in steel ground flour to be destroyed during the grinding process.

Alternatively, stone ground flour is produced by the relatively slow grinding of large stones together (with the wheat in the middle). This type of flour is harder to find and almost always leaves the germ intact producing whole wheat flour. There is no heat build up, so all the nutrients stay intact as the four is made.

Bleaching or aging is another process that differentiates flours. Bleached flours produce doughs that are less sticky and rise better than unbleached flours. Bleaching can be accomplished by aging the flour over time (the oxidation of the flour causes the yellow pigments to fade) or through a chemical means (usually using chlorine dioxide and potassium bromade to age the flour). The aging process removes some of the naturally occurring vitamin E present in wheat. The flour ends up uniformly white and has (generally) better baking properties.

The texture of the flour is determined by how much sifting (or bolting) is performed at the mill. The degree of sifting will result in a powdery flour or a coarse flour. Prior to packaging, most flours in the United States are also presifted. Presifted flour can be measured directly from the bag by stirring, measuring with a dry measuring cup, and leveled with a straight edge. Unsifted flour needs to be sifted prior to measuring (by volume). If unsifted flour is measured by weight, it should still be sifted prior to use in a recipe requiring sifted flour (assume all recipes require sifted flour).

Additives
Enriched flour contain vitamins and nutrients that have been added to offset the loss from the grinding and aging of flour. Usually, niacin, riboflavin, thiamin and iron are added to flours that do not contain wheat germ. In addition vitamin E is often added to bleached wheat. Some brands will also contain additional vitamin A, C, and D.

Some bread flours will have a little bit of malted barley flour added to help yeast growth. In addition, potassium bromate may be included to lend strength and help the dough maintain the yeast gases.

The addition of baking powder and salt produces self-rising flour or leavened flour. When using self-rising flour, simply omit the baking powder and salt from the recipe (leave in any baking soda a recipe calls for).

Other names?
Outside of the United States, different types of flour may have different names. For example, plain flour is often similar to all purpose flour. However, the regional differences that cause all-purpose flours to vary from U.S. state to state, also cause similar flours from other nations to differ slightly in property from those in the United States.

Measuring flour
Whenever possible, flour should be measured using a scale. With a good digital scale with fast response, it is actually easier to measure flour by simply pouring it into a bowl on the scale and stopping when you hit the mark.

If you do not own a scale and need to use a measuring cup, then make sure you use a dry measuring cup (one that measures to the lip of the cup, not to some marking below the lip such as this poor design - please don't buy these). Scoop the sifted flour into the cup and level with a flat straight edge (like a bench scraper or ruler). You'll get really close to 125 g per cup with this technique - but you have to make sure you sift your flour. (One easy and mostly effective way to do this is to store your flour in a large air tight container. I use a pickling jar big enough to hold a 5 pound bag of flour with room to spare. Before measuring, pick up the container and shake it so you incorporate as much of the air in the jar into the flour as possible. It works best if the jar is half air and half flour. Once you've done this, let it sit for a few minutes so you don't get a face full of flour when you open the lid. Then scoop and level.)

When reading a recipe, you should always start off by assuming that it is written with sifted flour in mind. For example, if a recipe calls for 1 cup flour, it should be assumed that it is one cup of sifted flour. The reason for this is that measuring unsifted flour is inaccurate and pretty much impossible to replicate from household to household. If the flour hasn't been sifted, how do you know how much it's settled over time? The amount of settling is dependant on how much the bag has been jiggled during transportation, how long it's been sitting on the shelf, and other environmental factors that are unpredictable. So, one person may scoop store bought "presifted" (which pretty much means unsifted by the time you get home) flour and find that it is actually 20% more flour than grandma who wrote down the recipe normally uses.

Unfortunately, these days, it seems that no one likes to follow standards and American cookbooks seem to be written based on the 140 g per cup "standard" which is nearly impossible to replicate through the scoop and level method. The reason why 140 g per cup is used so much now is that it is in between the ultra-densely settled 160 g per cup and the just sifted 125 g per cup. Using 140 g per cup as a recipe measurement means it's unlikely that anyone will be able to replicate your recipe (unless they have a scale) but no one will be creating a disasterous baked good if they are off by 10%. Unfortunately, 10% can alter the texture of your cookies quite a bit... so measure with a scale and forget all this volumetric nonsense.


Written by Michael Chu
www.cookingforengineers.com

Wheat flour I

More wheat flour is produced than any other flour. Wheat varieties are called "clean," "white," or "brown" if they have high gluten content, and they are called "soft" or "weak" flour if gluten content is low. Hard flour, or bread flour, is high in gluten, with 12% to 14% gluten content, and has elastic toughness that holds its shape well once baked. Soft flour is comparatively low in gluten and so results in a finer texture. Soft flour is usually divided into cake flour, which is the lowest in gluten, and pastry flour, which has slightly more gluten than cake flour.

In terms of the parts of the grain (the grass fruit) used in flour—the endosperm or starchy part, the germ or protein part, and the bran or fibre part—there are three general types of flour. White flour is made from the endosperm only. Whole grain or wholemeal flour is made from the entire grain, including bran, endosperm, and germ. A germ flour is made from the endosperm and germ, excluding the bran.

• All-purpose or plain flour is a blended wheat flour with a gluten content lower than bread flour, ranging between 9% and 12%. Depending on brand or the region where it is purchased it may be composed of all hard or soft wheats or a blend of the two, and can range from low gluten content to moderately high. It is marketed as an inexpensive alternative to bakers' flours, supposedly acceptable for most household baking needs.
• Bleached flour is treated with flour bleaching agents to whiten it (freshly milled flour is yellowish) and to give it more gluten-producing potential. Oxidizing agents are usually employed, most commonly organic peroxides like acetone peroxide or benzoyl peroxide, nitrogen dioxide, or chlorine. A similar effect can be achieved by letting the flour oxidize with oxygen in the air ("natural aging") for approximately 10 days; however, this process is more expensive due to the time required.
• Bread Flour is always made from hard wheat, usually hard spring wheat. It has a very high gluten content, between 10% and 13%, making it excellent for yeast bread baking.
  
• Bromated flour has a maturing agent added. The agent's role is to help with developing gluten, a role similar to the flour bleaching agents. Bromate is usually used. Other choices are phosphates, ascorbic acid, and malted barley. Bromated flour has been banned in much of the world, as bromate is classified as possibly carcinogenic in humans (Group 2B) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)., but remains available in the United States.
• Cake flour is a finely milled flour made from soft wheat. It has very low gluten content, between 8% and 10%, making it suitable for soft-textured cakes and cookies. The higher gluten content of other flours would make the cakes tough. Highly sifted cake flours may require different volume amounts in recipes than all-purpose flour. Related to cake flour are masa harina (from maize), maida flour (from wheat or tapioca), and pure starches.
• Graham flour is a special type of whole-wheat flour. The endosperm is finely ground, as in white flour, while the bran and germ are coarsely ground. Graham flour is uncommon outside of the USA and Europe. It is the basis of true graham crackers. Many graham crackers on the market are actually imitation grahams because they do not contain graham flour or even whole-wheat flour. Another difference, however, is that commercial graham crackers are designed to be flavorful, unlike Mr. Graham's vision of a bland diet aimed at curbing masturbation among other perceived social ills.
• Pastry flour or cookie flour or cracker flour has slightly higher gluten content than cake flour but lower than all-purpose flour. Its gluten content ranges between 9% and 10%. It is suitable for pie pastry and tarts, some cookies, muffins, biscuits and other quick breads. Flour is shaken through a sieve to reduce the amount of lumps for cooking pastry.
• Self-rising or self-raising flour is flour that is sold premixed with chemical leavening agents. It was invented by Henry Jones. Self-rising flour is typically composed of the following ratio:

• 1 cup (100 g) flour
• 1 and 1/2 teaspoon (3 g) baking powder
• a pinch to ½ teaspoon (1 g or less) salt

• Sharp flour is produced in Fiji and primarily used in Indian cuisine.
• Spelt flour is a flour produced from the type of wheat called spelt. It is less commonly used in modern cooking than other wheat varieties. It is still used for speciality baking.
• Tang flour or wheat starch is a type of wheat flour used primarily in Chinese cooking for making the outer layer of dumplings and buns. It is also used in Vietnamese cuisine, where it is called bột lọc trong.

Source: www.en.wikipedia.org, the free encyclopedia

Simulator of The Wheat Flour

Simulator of the wheat flour which is protein-based; a model for mixing of 3 types of wheat to establish a formula with protein of wheat flour as desired. Also suitable for fortificasion / enrichment of blended flour. The computerized model programed in Turbo Basic Ianguage (.exe file) and Ms Office Excel 2007 running in the system of the linear regression to achieve the target protein of wheat flour as desired; each input grain has the highest and lowest ranges. With the simulated formula, we can reduce the production cost by choosing a fit flour formula. In the wheat milling industry, usually 2 or 3 types of wheat which has high protein (strong wheat) and wheat which has low protein (soft wheat) blended in the mixing silo, generally because the wheat which has high protein more expensive compared to the wheat which has low protein; so by reducing the composition of wheat which has high protein, expected the production cost from procurement of raw materials deductible as minimum as possible.

The early emergence of idea of this simulator program, when the programmer participated in the practice study and research at the wheat milling factory of PT Bogasari Flour Mills Jakarta a few years ago. There’re various types of wheat mixed between the wheat which has low protein (soft wheat), medium wheat and high protein (strong wheat). The calculation of blend is usually done manually (calculator) to get the desired protein content; either blend of 2 types of wheat or 3 types of wheat. With calculation manually seen tardy and dabbl to make a test of blend with protein content of wheat blend that approaching the desired protein content.

From linear regression equations model y = mx + b , a set of data (Xi,Yi) with n data points, the slope, y-intercept and correlation coefficient, r, we can apply a statistical treatment to determine a formula of the desired wheat blend. The develoved equations model can be determined using the following equations (http://phoenix.phys.clemson.edu):

In the wheat milling industry, usually 2 or 3 types of wheat which has high protein (strong wheat) and wheat which has low protein (soft wheat) blended in the mixing silo, generally because the wheat which has high protein more expensive compared to the wheat which has low protein; so by reducing the composition of wheat which has high protein, expected the production cost from procurement of raw materials deductible as minimum as possible.

Determination level of wheat formula from three types of wheat to produce a certain type of wheat flour in the wheat milling factory is usually determined randomly or in multiples of certain comparison with the total mix of the end of 100% and the rate of protein with a specific approach. For example, in PT ISM Bogasari Flour Mills, mixing of three types of wheat i.e. APH wheat (Australian Prime Hard) with a rate of 13% protein, CWS wheat (Canadian White Spring) with a rate of 12.5% protein dan ASW wheat (Australian Soft Wheat) with a rate of 9% protein to produce wheat flour with protein content 12% obtained with 40% of APH, 40% of CWS and 20% of ASW. Restricting factors of the method of determination level of the wheat formula is the amount of wheat and the rate of protein used, while the production cost of procurement of raw materials for wheat flour produced is not defined.

Determination level of wheat formula from three types of wheat in addition can be determined randomly or in multiples of a certain comparison, it can be determined by the method of simulation analytical balance equilibrium (analitical balance simulation). With this method of simulation analytical balance equilibrium can be determined some of the wheat formula that products finally have a certain range of parameters as the rectricting factors i.e. the rate of protein, water, fat, carbohydrate, dan ash. In this illustration, rectricting factors used for determining level of the wheat formula is protein content of the wheat flour produced.

Protein content of wheat flour determine the quality of wheat flour produced in the wheat milling industry. According to the ISM Bogasari Flour Mills (1996), wheat flour of Cakra Kembar brand contains protein 12--14%, wheat flour of Segitiga Biru brand contains protein 10--12% dan wheat flour of Kunci Biru brand contains protein 7.5--10%.

Determination level of wheat formula with the method of simulation analytical balance equilibrium, especially for 3 types of wheat that has a big difference of protein content (extreme) as the protein content of wheat which has high protein and wheat which has low protein will produce some formula which has same protein content on the different level of wheat contribution.

Figure 1. Scheme of mixing 3 types of wheat

This simulator program is emphasized at mixing 3 input of wheat that has a different protein content, to achieve percentage point of the desired protein (Figure 1). This simulator program has advantages compared with the calculation manually. Other than as practical and fast, each formula of each input of wheat has a certain range to achieve target protein content of wheat blend that we specify (Figure 2 dan Figure 3).

For example, protein of wheat A = 10%, protein of wheat B = 11% and protein of wheat C = 13%. Three types of wheat are mixed to get protein content of wheat blend of 12%. With this simulator program will be obtained some alternative formula of wheat blend as follows:

Note:
n = Formula of wheat blend which is to -n
F1 = Wheat A (%); with a range of 0% -- 50%
F2 = Wheat B (%); with a range of 0% -- 33.33%
F3 = Wheat C (%); with a range of 50% -- 66.67%
pF4 = The target protein of wheat blend (%)

If we make the graph will be seen as follows:

Figure 2. Wheat formula at protein content of 12%

From the graphic image seen that each of the grist input has the lowest ranges and the highest ranges to achieve the target protein content of the grist blend of 12%; if the composition of grist A boosted up, the composition of grist B and the composition of grist C will descend.

The other example, if three types of this grist are mixed again to get the protein content of grist blend of 11%. With this simulator program will be obtained some alternative of the following grist formula :

If we make the graph will be seen as follows:

Figure 3. Wheat formula at protein content of 11%

From the graphic image seen that each of the grist input has the lowest ranges and the highest ranges to achieve the target protein content of the grist blend of 11%; if the composition of grist A degraded, the composition of grist B go up and the composition of grist C descend.

In fact from 2 examples above can be made more than 6 formula, because this program produces a range of the minimum and maximum values from each input of wheat; 6 formula in the example above only represent a range of the minimum and maximum values from every input of wheat.

From 2 illustration of the wheat formula above, if made a line graph with the level of contribution of wheat B (%) as x – axis dan the protein content of wheat (%) as y - axis, can be concluded that to get a blend of wheat A, wheat B and wheat C with the level of contribution wheat B 0--100%, the region that may be for the target protein of the desired wheat blend is at a range / regional of total protein of 2 wheat blend on each level of contribution i.e. the area of graph of protein content wheat A-wheat B with the area of graph of protein content of wheat C-wheat B (Figure 4). The hatched areas indicate the possible position to determine the protein content of wheat blend.

Figure 4. The Level of Contribution of B Wheat

Note:
F1 = Wheat A (%)
F2 = Wheat B (%)
F3 = Wheat C (%)

Meanwhile for the wheat blend with protein content of APH Wheat 13%, protein content of CWS wheat 12.5% dan protein content of ASW wheat 9% with the level of contribution of CWS wheat 0--100%, the possible region for target protein of the desired wheat blend is at at a range / regional of total protein of 2 wheat blend on each level of contribution i.e. the area of graph of protein content APH wheat-CWS wheat with the area of graph of protein content of ASW wheat-CWS wheat (Figure 5). The hatched areas indicate the possible position to determine the protein content of wheat blend.

Figure 5. The Level of Contribution of CWS Wheat

If APH wheat, CWS wheat dan ASW wheat are mixed to obtain the protein content of wheat blend of 12%. Besides obtained with comparison of 40% APH, 40% CWS and 20% ASW, With this simulator program will be obtained some alternative of the following grist formula :

Note:
n = Formula of wheat blend which is to –n
APH wheat (%); with a range of 0.01 -- 75%
CWS wheat (%); with a range of 0 -- 85.7%
ASW wheat (%); with a range of 14.29 -- 25%
pF4 = The target protein of wheat blend (%)

The hatched areas these are as a key in determining the level of actual wheat formula! With the help of this simulator program, the hatched region is easier in exploration.

From mixing of 3 kinds of input wheat can be developed for calculation of the amount of water needed during the process of dampening or expansion of the program for mixing 4 input, 5 input or more, the addition other components such as the addition of the price input each wheat/kg, fat, carbohydrate, water and vitamin or mixing 3 kinds of input or more of non wheat flour for making any formula of the composite flour or any formula of the livestock woof. (Now, this simulator program have been developed to this direction).

*) Content of this article is developed from research of Suwandy J. 1998. Physical Properties of Composite Flour and Organoleptic Properties of Flat Bread from some Formula of Simulated Results of Corn Flour, Wheat Flour and Soybean Flour. Script. Majors of Food Technology. Faculty of Agriculture. Lampung University. 120 pages.